John Locke on Tacit and Unintended Consent Essay

In his Second Treatise on Law and Government, John Locke outlines clear and coherent standards for what constitutes a legitimate government and what persons one such government would have authority over. Both are determined by citizens’ acts of consenting to relinquish to the government part of their natural authority over their own conduct. Unfortunately, the situation becomes much less clear once we consider how his standards would apply to the political situation existing in the real world today. If we continue to subscribe to Locke’s account without altering its standards, we would see a precipitous drop in the number of people whose interests existing governments are responsible for serving. In this paper I will show that with certain changes and clarifications to Locke’s standards, the responsibilities of existing governments need not be allowed to shrink so drastically. This creates a tradeoff, however. Changing the standards to apply more closely to actual functioning governments has the consequence of making it more difficult to determine the legitimacy of those governments. Some of the clarity of Locke’s theoretical model is lost in translating it to apply to actual instances of government. A cornerstone of Locke’s political philosophy is the idea that a government holds power legitimately only through the consent of the governed. A civil society consents to grant a particular government rule over it, and each person chooses on an individual basis to become a member of a particular civil society (II, 117). As giving such consent has far-reaching consequences over a person’s life, Locke provides further explanation of what â€Å"consent† entails in this context. Only one way exists to become a member of a civil society: express consent. From Locke’s account this would have to be a fairly formal business, which the individual enters â€Å"by positive Engagement, and express Promise and Compact† (II, 122). Locke’s original wording is important because it seems to imply that unless a person actually makes a public agreement to submit to government law in return for protection of person, liberty, and property, she has not expressly consented. He makes it clear that there are no alternatives to this official process if one is to become part of a civil society, (II, 122). Even if one is not considered part of a particular civil society, she must submit to its authority to the extent of her involvement in that society. Someone who owns land within the territory occupied by a civil society is obligated to obey the law of whatever body has ruling authority in that territory as it applies to ownership and use of property. Someone merely travelling on a public road through a country will have less contact with the civil society of that area and so fewer laws of that society will have application to her behavior. Still, those laws that do cover what activities she carries out have binding force on her (II, 120-121). These people incur the obligation to submit to local authority because that authority is protecting them, perhaps by preventing the citizens of the area from acting in ways that would harm other people including the outsider. For the outsider to be free of those restraints and take advantage of the area’s citizens would be unjust; therefore she is obligated to comply with the legal restraints observed by citizens the area. In neither of these cases would the person in question be considered a member of the civil society whose laws she is obeying unless she expressly consented to join that society in addition to her tacit consent to follow its laws. An immediate criticism of Locke’s account thus far is that in practice, hardly anyone expressly gives consent to join any civil society. Even in most real-world cases where a person does announce submission to a particular government, the declaration would not meet Locke’s conditions of consent that would give legitimacy to the rule of government over that person. Oaths such as the U. S. Pledge of Allegiance are usually only indications that the speaker is prepared to obey directives from the government of a particular state. Consent in the strict sense would have to make explicit what the person is consenting to. Someone joining a civil society under Locke’s conception would need to spell out that she is giving up the right to make and enforce her own judgments to the government of that society, in return for that government’s protection of her interests. Even promises of blind obedience are far from universally practiced, and in most countries are the practice of reciting such pledges is confined to schools and youth groups as a form of education rather than contractual agreement. (The idea that most civil societies do not consider young people mature enough to consent to become members is discussed later in this paper). Explicit contractual consent is far rarer than these questionably binding declarations. If most people fail to give explicit consent to trade away some of their natural rights, under Locke’s terms they have not joined any civil society, and so should not be counted as the citizens of any state or the subjects of any government. This has profound significance because of the relation between civil society and government. The agreement of a civil society is the force and justification behind its government’s authority (II, 149); in return for the mandate that grants it power, the government exists to protect the interests of that particular group of people. Anyone not the member of a particular civil society has no legitimate voice in the form or operation of the government that society creates, and she has no right to expect that government to protect her interests. This does not mean that the government will not take any actions that are to her benefit; the laws of that nation which prevent its citizens from killing and robbing may also prevent them from killing or robbing her. When the government enacts laws, however, it need only do so with the interests of its constituency in mind, and has no obligation to create laws conducive to the interests of an outsider. Any benefits the outsider enjoys as a result of the laws of a particular country are purely coincidental to those laws’ intent. Someone who is not a member of any civil society at all will accordingly have no power over any government, and her interests will deserve the consideration of no government. Since the vast majority of people have not given express consent to join a particular society, the majority of humanity has no right to expect its interests to be served or protected by any of the governments existing on earth. Everyone, however, is required to submit to the control of one government or another depending of where they live, since basically every part of the earth inhabited by humans is under the dominion of one state or another. Rule is solely in the hands of those few people who have actually signed some kind of formal social contract, and needs only to consider their interests. Any government with which no living person has made a formal consent agreement rules illegitimately. The fact that Locke’s model leads to an implication that most of humanity is neither the legitimate authors nor the deserving beneficiaries of government does not prove the model is logically flawed. However, the very great majority of people consider themselves members of a civil society, and are considered as such by other people and, most importantly, by governments. However real governments define their constituency, few if any set express consent as the standard. Enslavement of the tacitly consenting masses by the expressly contracted few thus fails to provide an accurate theoretical model of governmental institutions in the real world. Locke himself describes of the formation of government as an action taken by and for the â€Å"community† (II, 149); this wording suggests that he would have disagreed with the idea that citizenship by express consent leading to dictatorship by a de facto minority is, in practice, the most typical form of legitimate government. It is possible that those without citizenship (the majority of people under our present definition) actually benefit by not being contractually bound to any particular civil society. As long as someone who is not an official citizen resides within the territory of an existing government which fulfills the duties expected of government (II, 131), its laws discourage both citizens of the civil society and other â€Å"outsiders† from threatening her life, liberty, and property. Thus someone could enjoy much of the security that membership in a civil society would provide simply by living in a well-governed area without joining in civil society. In PHI 309 lecture, Prof. Sreenivasan pointed out a possible advantage that such a living arrangement could provide for the unaffiliated: in cases where it was in one’s best interests to abandon a country beset by war, pestilence, or economic or other disaster, noncitizens could jump ship without that act being considered an injustice. Those who had by express consent tied themselves to the civil society might well be obligated to remain with the community, and would not have the option of fleeing the war or hardship. Yet in most of the world, nomadic living is considered the exception, not the rule. Citizens of the world’s various nations must be considering factors not included in Locke’s account. One of the most significant of these is a convention that has introduced a new kind of consent enabling people to become citizens of particular states. Most civil societies have found it desirable to designate officially who is a member of that society, i. e. a member of that state. As a government’s power depends on its constituency, government function is expedited by the government’s having accurate knowledge of the extent of its power base, that is to say the extent of its citizenry. At the same time, concern for its own integrity and distrust of outsiders drives a civil society to delineate who is and is not a member. These and perhaps other factors have led to the creation of conventions (usually expressed as laws passed by governments) by which a person is declared to be a member of a particular civil society (i. e. citizen of a country) regardless of whether or not that person has actually expressed consent to what such membership entails. The most typical example is a law declaring that anyone born in the territory of a particular nation is a citizen of that nation. When still a juvenile, that person of course has not actively consented to anything, and so is usually considered not complete member of civil society; although part of a community, the juvenile generally lacks certain rights and powers given to full members of the society. Upon reaching the age when she can make her own decisions, laws indicate what society the person is considered a member of in the absence of active consent by that person. The person continues to hold that default membership until she makes an active decision to join another civil society. The conventional reflection of this active decision is generally a naturalization process by which someone can become a citizen of a country she did not belong to by default. By going through the naturalization process, a person is understood to consent to the tradeoff which would make her a member of that civil society. It could be objected that being considered the member of a civil society by default is another matter entirely from consenting to join that society and willingly relinquish one’s rights. Where is the consent in this instance? This question is less troubling before the person has come of age, because most would agree that a juvenile generally lacks the judgment to be signing any kind of binding social contract. But can a government legitimately assert that a person has consented to cede her rights to it simply because she has not actively protested? This question could be answered affirmatively. A person can choose not to consent to membership in her default civil society, or give up her membership in a civil society she already belongs to, by joining another civil society through a more active process such as naturalization. This means that if she does not take such an action, she is accepting the convention that interprets her inaction as an expression of consent to join the civil society she was assigned to by default. By systematizing and codifying standards for consent, then, states in actual practice ensure that the great majority of people are not lone agents. One might still question how conscious most people are that they are held to be making this sort of contract, even in the most open societies. A case can be made that essentially, they are aware. No one is unaware of what society she belongs to. Each person is effectively the member of whatever civil society exerts control over her, usually through its government. As soon as that person is conscious of the control being exerted over her, she is made unmistakably aware of what her citizenship is. With the realization of what government she is under comes the option to change her membership. The final and most damaging criticism of the consent model is the question of what happens when a person does not have the option to move to a new territory and join a new civil society. This may occur because of a person’s own lack of means to carry out or simple ignorance of the options ostensibly available to her. It may also be the result of oppression by the government, preventing citizens of the country from leaving. Any of these conditions can force a person to remain an official member of a particular civil society. However, the standard of â€Å"conventionalized explicit consent† introduced above is only able to maintain that most people consent to join a civil society because it assumes those people have options besides their initial citizenship. If people are not being given other options, the model is still not logically flawed. Rather, it suggests a situation similar to that originally introduced as the consequence of applying Locke’s model to the real world: the people in such situations are not really part of the civil society that created the government to whose control they are forced to submit. As such, they retain undiminished the right to join another civil society through a new social contract. If they do so, they may create a new government to follow instead of the one they currently submit to by tacit consent. Of course, there is no guarantee that the government ruling them in the status quo will allow them to replace its control. If it retains control over them by force, Locke’s model would still hold them to be tacitly consenting to its authority by â€Å"enjoyment† of its dominion. This counterintuitive conclusion is avoided by the model requiring choice for real consent. If we follow that paradigm, we come to the conclusion that the government is ruling without any consent from the governed in those cases. According to Locke, such government is mere enslavement and so is illegitimate. To say that a government is wholly illegitimate if it hold power over even one person without her consent is clearly excessive; probably no government could ever achieve legitimacy under that criterion. However, we can say that a government is legitimate to the extent that its citizens are aware of other options and consider membership in their current civil society with its ruling government preferable to those options. The problem with such a standard is that it depends on what is thought by the citizens of a country, and to ascertain a person’s mentality is difficult. The most reliable test is to provide citizens with realistic options and observe whether they remain with the status quo or seek a change in their situation. That change may involve leaving their current civil society, or it may mean seeking to change the structure or behavior of that society’s government. The country’s citizens can be said to consent to the government ruling them to the extent that they posses the power to change their situation, but still maintain the status quo. Thus, the legitimacy of a government can be measured by the effective options available to its citizens. If we had held to Locke’s standards for consent to membership in a civil society and submission to government rule, we would have concluded that most people in the world are tacitly consenting to the rule of governments created by very small groups of explicit signers of social contracts. This would lead to a bizarre picture of the political landscape very much at odds with intuition and with modern reality. By changing standards for consent to mean compliance with official requirements for citizenship when other options are available, we are able to account for those who consider themselves and are considered members of a civil society without having given explicit consent, while at the same time freeing those not given a choice from the appearance of having given consent. A government is then legitimate to the extent that its citizens have given consent according to these standards. It is one of those rare examples where laws have made the situation clearer. Sources: Locke, John. Second Treatise. From Two Treatises of Government, Laslett, Peter, ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

Stephen J. Dubner’s novel Turbulent Souls Analysis

According to Soren Kierkergaard, a prominent existentialist, in Stephen J. Dubner's novel, Turbulent Souls, the protagonists, Stephen, Veronica, and Paul Dubner, are the quintessential â€Å"Knights of Faith†. A † Knight of Faith† is the existentially perfect man or woman who could grasp his own freedom and create his own destiny. Despite the disconnectedness of the world, the â€Å"Knight of Faith† finds the courage to unify his or her world through an act of determination. Through much searching, the â€Å"Knight of Faith† discovers that man is entrapped in absolute isolation. Prior to becoming a † Knight of Faith† he or she must take a † leap of faith† into something higher and beyond the self such as into belief in G-d. The only way authentically to take a † leap of faith† and to escape the anxiety and despair that is the quintessence of the universal human condition is to choose despair, and to sink so deep into despair that one loses all commitment of family, friends, and community. When these are all lost, with absolutely nothing left, in a complete crisis, and at the edge of the abyss, he or she will be prepared for faith in G-d, he or she will chose G-d, and make the â€Å"leap of faith† to G-d. Therefore, he or she has created a unique connection with G-d and has conquered his or her fears, and the hypocrisies and tribulations in the world. Propelled by psychological despair and existential emptiness, each of the three principal characters embarks upon a quest for spiritual enlightenment and/or emotional healing. The novel begins by discussing the childhood of Stephen's parents, Sol and Florence, and after their conversion, Paul and Veronica. Florence's basis of her conversion and her quest for spiritual bliss began even as a little girl in her parent's, Esther and Harry, small apartment in Brooklyn, New York, above Harry's candy store. Every night, when Florence's mother would come up the stairs from the candy store she would say to Florence, â€Å"Your father, he works so hard he must be made from iron. And Florence in her singsong voice, always gave the same retort: Well then, he better not go out in the rain or he'll get all rusty†(3). Florence had a special connection with her father, and it was only her mother who she ridiculed. Both Florence and her father did not appreciate how â€Å"Esther would prattle on about her brother the big fabric man, who just bought a new house, and how his wife always has new hats and how their children were smarter and healthier that their own children, how little Irving could eat a whole head of lettuce and drink a whole quart of milk at one meal†(4). In addition, † Every year Florence asked her mother to teach her the Four Questions so she could ask them at the Seder. What's the use, her mother would say. Your cousin Irving's the boy, and he's the smarter one anyway, so Irving gets to ask the questions†(7). This had a tremendous impact on her because her mother instilled in her the notion that she is not worthy, which could possibly be a reason for her conversion to Catholicism, which she felt to be more accepting. Florence and her sister Della did not get along very well, so â€Å"Florence's favorite playmate was her grandmother Sarah-Ruhkel†¦ they would giggle and cuddle like friends†¦. At night she sat on the edge of Florence's bed and told stories of Queen Esther. She taught Florence how to thank G-d for the good day and ask him for a good husband when the time came†(6). Unfortunately, â€Å"When her grandmother wasn't around she was lonely†(7). One afternoon, Florence was playing outside with another friend, they both needed to go to the bathroom but her friend lost her house key, so they waited by the stoop. Her friend said a prayer and a few minutes later a man came home and let them in. Florence thought about what happen and she â€Å"knew it wasn't magic, quite; it was certainly a different way of looking at things. She didn't mention it to anyone. Who would listen? â€Å"(8). In this moment, she sees her friend's prayer answered and concludes that it was more then luck that caused it. It was the will of G-d. One spring when Florence was sick in bed and she heard her friends playing outside, she experienced her first existential thoughts in her life. She thought, â€Å"Boy oh boy, life goes on all by itself whether I'm there or not†(8). The one thing she feared the most was death, and when her grandfather died, She wonder[ed] what had become of him. Not his corpse-that she understood-but the rest of him. Was there more of him. She wasn't sure. She could not forget the realization she'd had lying in bed that day, hearing her friends playing with out her. If things didn't change when she wasn't here, what did it matter if she was here or not? But she was here. What for then? To think of herself as merely a random collection of muscle and teeth and curls was unspeakably sad. And yet the other possibility-that there was some sort of purpose to life that she must fathom and follow-made her dizzy (20). The first time Florence introduced anti-Semitism was when † a girl named Ann Ross, with blond hair and very blue eyes, had stood up and declared: My father says that Hitler has the right idea about the Jews†(21). Again, she encountered anti-Semitism when an older boy from her neighborhood said, â€Å"What do you want little Jew? He said, and spat in her face†(22). She did not mention either incident to her parents because her father did not have the time for it and her mother already had to many worries. A few years later Florence went to ballet classes with a friend who invited her. The teacher's name was Asta Souvorina, but every one called her Madame Souvorina, and Florence felt that â€Å"there was an intensity spilling from her, and it attracted Florence like a magnet†(22). Florence became Madame Souvorina's best student and went to class everyday, and sometimes when Madame was sick she taught the class instead. Florence imitated everything that Madame did, and just like Madame was a vegetarian, she became a vegetarian. Florence also knew that Madame was Catholic, but all she ever knew about Catholicism seemed unbelievable, such as the virgin birth or the Resurrection. Madame was not interested in arguing with Florence about the eternal verities of Christendom, so she told Florence, â€Å"If you are so curious, †¦ you should read about it yourself†(25). Florence went ahead and read the Epistles, which were the letter from St. Paul, and she Was astounded to discover that a living, breathing person-a Jew, no less-had left behind such testimony. Everything she ever heard about Jesus seemed so far away, like a fairy tale. But Paul had been there. No, he hadn't actually met Jesus, but his letters, she felt had the ring of truth. After all, Paul was an educated Jew who had traveled widely. Why would he write of being struck down blind on the road to Damascus, hearing Jesus calling to him from the clouds, had it not happened that way (25). Florence never had done much thinking about God, and wondered what he looked like. She thought maybe he looked like, old Moishe, [her grandfather who past away], with a long, dusty beard; perhaps he had the face of a cloud. Or, Florence thought, perhaps the face of God was the face of Jesus, the young, loving, tortured face she had seen on the wall of Madame's bedroom†(25). By now Florence was approaching stardom, and was going dance at Radio City Music Hall, but Florence's mind still constantly swirled with distressing questions: â€Å"Why had she been born and where would she go afterward? And might Jesus have anything to do with it? (26). Her one fear, death, according to Catholicism was not something to be afraid of, but was something to look forward to, which brought her a lot of comfort. She remembers, â€Å"† as a young girl she always was bemused when her Catholic friends talked about Heaven, as if they were sure of it. But St. Paul, in his Epistles, was sure of it to: † Then we who are alive, who are left, shall be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air†Ã¢â‚¬ (26). Madame directed her to the Church of the Blessed Sacrament, where she spoke with a Catholic priest, Father Conroy, who taught her a little prayer that he promised would help. The prayer was, â€Å"Give me the grace to know Your truth and the strength to follow it†(27). Over time, her curiosity became a need, and when Madame told her she â€Å"did not need to be Catholic to taste the Sacraments of the Church, and so she did†(28). She began attending mass and even went to confession. One morning at mass she listened absorbedly to the priest's sermon, and â€Å"he cited the Gospel of John: God said, this is my beloved son in whom I am well pleased; hear him†(29). Florence took this to heart and realized the â€Å"instructions could not have been simpler, or more welcome. Florence, having exposed her heart, was now rewarded with the kiss of God upon her ear. The shadows of her soul were flooded with sunlight; a sublime peace settled over her. She understood that she had received the gift of faith, and she would be eternally grateful†(29). Finally, through much searching she found spiritual enlightenment and has become a true â€Å"Knight of Faith†. Solly Dubner grew up in an orthodox family in Brownsville, New York. His parents' names are Shepsel and Gittel. Unlike Florence, he loved his mother more then anything in the world. Also, he loved to whistle all the time. Unfortunately, â€Å"whistling was forbidden in his father's house. You might as well invite the Angel of Death. That, at least, is what his father believed†(9). Although his father kept a strict house, Solly obeyed his father because Any disobedience, however slight, made his father angry. And when is father was angry for whatever reason, he took it out on Solly's mother, Gittel, rarely shouting but unfailing choosing the half dozen words that would conjure up the bitterest tears. Solly, who loved his mother dearly, would have rather taken the strap any day. But Shepsel would never strike his children, for it is written. And if one were to ask him, Where is it written? It is written, it is written, he would say impatiently. The where is not important (10). Solly was never satisfied with his father's answers. Nat, Solly's older brother, always came home on Shabbat because he felt bad the others had to suffer Shepsel alone. Nat was particularly worried about Solly because â€Å"Shepsel seemed to have a particularly hard heart for him. Solly, was different; he wanted more out of life, and Nat knew that more was the one thing that could not be found in their father's house. As he walked home from school one Friday afternoon, † from the second floor window, a man in his undershirt shouted down to him: Hey, Solly, what the hell are you whistling for-don't you know your mother's dead†(12). His father always said whistling was forbidden and you might as well invite the angel of death; therefore, after his mother's death, Solly felt partially responsible because he always whistled. This guilt lead to the beginning of his bottomless depression. According to Jewish law, one should bury the deceased as soon as possible, but since out of town relatives would not be able to attend to the funeral, they were forced to wait until they arrived. Shepsel gathered all of his children to watch their mother's body until it was time to burial. The ice that was packed in her casket was melting; therefore, â€Å"a metal bucket was placed beneath the leaking casket. The dripping, the rising stench, the stab of his mother's death-it was all to much for Solly, and he stood up to get some fresh air, but his father pressed him back into his seat†(17). Solly had a lot of questions regarding Jewry, but sadly, † concerning their religion, there was no question Solly could ask his father for which he received an answer that was remotely satisfying†(17). He kept falling deeper and deeper into depression and â€Å"everyone who knew Solly Dubner in the late 1930's could see that a blanket of despair had befallen him. Though he was only in his early twenties, the courage of his youth had melted away and his optimism had withered†(31). In 1942, â€Å"the war at last came to America, Solly immediately enlisted in the Army. Finally he could escape his father's house†(33). It seems as if he is looking forward to the war coming to America, but since war is unpleasant, violent, and awful. After, the reader realized the reason he is jubilant is because the war is his savior from his father. After, serving in the Army for quite a while he came home for six weeks, and when he arrived home he went to the Church of the Blessed Sacrament. He met Father Conroy and asked him, â€Å"Have you ever heard of a creature like me, Father, a Jew who wants to be Catholic? As a matter of fact, Father Conroy answered, I have. He told Sol about the group of young Catholic Activists he met with every Monday night. Two of the women, he explained were Jewish converts†(42), who were Florence and her friend, who was also a ballerina. At the end of his first meeting he told his story: He felt as if he'd been walking around in the dark, and†¦ While he was station overseas, someone finally turned on the light, and that light was Jesus. She saw that there was a natural kindness about this soldier, and earnestness. He mentioned his father, a traditional Jew named Shepsel, who sounded an awful lot like Florence's grandfather Moishe. He hated what his decision would do to his father, the soldier was saying now, but there seemed no way around it-didn't Jesus say that he had come to set a man against his father? (43). He told them that he had already had been baptized as a Christian, but he was not sure which denomination of Christianity to settle on. He wanted to become a Catholic, but did not understand the role of Virgin Mary in Catholicism. He asked the group, â€Å"Since she isn't a member of the Holy Trinity, why would you worship her? Why would you pray to the Virgin Mary when you can pray directly to G-d? Florence answered, â€Å"You don't worship the Blessed Mother, you ask her to intercede†¦ This is part of the beauty of Catholicism that you have all these wonderful saints you can pray to. Who better to Petition G-d than His mother, the Queen of Heaven? â€Å"(43). This was the first answer in his life that he was satisfied with. When he went to visit Nat and his wife, Dottie, † They could see there was something different about him; it seemed as if the spark of his youth had returned, as if once again he had something at stake†(44). He was once again sent out to war. Florence soon received a letter from Sol, which he wrote, † I have been baptized and received my first communion. Needless to say, it was a most wonderful experience and I hope to strengthen my faith in Christ each single day†(47). At last, Sol has climbed out of his emotional despair, and not only has he gone through an almost complete emotional healing, but he has become spiritually enlightened through Catholicism. Stephen grew up in upstate New York on Gallupville Road, where his family was a safe distance from the true world, which is based on a materialistic and inauthentic way of life. He is the youngest of Paul and Veronica's eight children. His had no complaints about his isolated Catholic upbringing until his father died when he was ten. He only remembered a few things about his father. Such as every night at dinner he said, â€Å"You get a little food in your belly and you get rambunctious†(107), and once his father took him to a baseball game without any other siblings. After his father's death he put his yearn for spiritual enlightenment to the side for a little while. When he went to College, he and a few of the other students created a band called â€Å"The Right Profile†. When he had a little time off from school he caught a ride down to Florida with a friend, who was going down for his grandfather's birthday, to visit his mom, who moved there about the same time he began college. On the way down to Florida he met an elderly Jewish woman at the birthday party and was attracted to her. He thought to himself, â€Å"I had never felt so instantly attracted to another person. But the feeling went beyond attraction. It was as if I were a piece of her somehow, or as if within her dwelled a piece of me that I had been searching for†(161). He was attracted to her Neshama, her Jewish soul, and as a result of this attraction he began to question his ways of life and search for the truth. One day while fixing up a song that he was going to record the next day, â€Å"[his] hand without any instruction [he] was aware of, printed on the page: What do I want? â€Å"(166). He knew he did not want to continue this life of being a rock star, and on the other hand he said to himself, † The band is all I [have]; the band is all I [am]†(167). His life contained no depth to it, and he needed to find his meaning of life. He did not know at the time, that he was the same age as his mother when she quit ballet. AS he later learned, they both had removed themselves from one pursuit they cared about; they both felt, momentarily at least, that their lives were over. They had both asked themselves an unanswerable question and, hearing nothing but a still, small voice from within, a feathery voice of encouragement, had taken the leap. She leaped into the arms of Jesus, and he wound up leaping into the arms of Abigail Seymour. He could hardly have known that Abigail would lead him into a reckoning with his Jewish blood. Abigail studied to become an actress with a Jewish man named Ivan Kronenfeld, who she introduced to Stephen. He was an inspiration to Stephen life Madame Souvorina had been to his mother. He gave a lot of things for Stephen to ponder like when he told him, â€Å"you'd have been plenty Jewish for Hitler. You've got the map of Poland written all over your face. You could have worn a crucifix down to your knees, and they still would have thrown you in the ovens†(174). Also he informed Stephen that according to Jewish law he was still Jewish because his mother was Jewish. He attended Synagogue one Saturday with Ivan and when he saw all of the Jews kiss the Torah as if it contained everything that they would ever need and everything that could ever be known. And on that day hope rested on his soul. He did not know anything about his father and mother, or why they had converted, and what it meant to him. This unawareness Was beginning to gnaw at [him]. Spending time with Ivan had awakened in [him] the idea of a father. It wasn't that [he] wanted him as a father. [He] had his own;[he] just didn't know him yet. But Ivan had awakened something else in [him]† an appetite for the Jewish wisdom he dispensed. It was kaleidoscopic, baffling, thrilling; it spoke to [him] as nothing ever had. Did it speak to [him], though, on its own merit? Or because [his] long-lost father had been nourished on the same wisdom? Or perhaps it was because curling around somewhere inside [him] was a Jewish neshama, a Jewish soul? †¦ The time had come to find [his] own [family] (183). So he followed the noise inside his soul, he searched for his parent's roots. He became consumed with the desire to know how his mother and father decided to become Catholic. He wanted to know why they stopped being Jews. He met a few of his long lost relatives from his father's side, and began to reveal his father as a Jew. He broke up with Abigail because her Jewish quest was over, and also he was more focused on writing anyway. He went to Poland to the shtetl his family lived in to understand more about his family but he still was not satisfied. While his search for his parent's past continues he continues studying Judaism fervently. Stephen's leap of faith and spiritual enlightenment is not as immediate as his parents, but through much pain and toiling he has discover himself and has untangled his family's roots. According to Rabbi Eric Bram, Turbulent Souls is not only the story of a son's individuation and journey; it is also the story of American Jewishness in the twentieth century. The connection between the country of American and its Jews has transformed significantly in the past century, Turbulent Souls is a proof of that transformation, as observed through the generations of Stephen Dubner's family. Jewishness has been both a basis of triumphant pride and of bottomless shame, and something to flee from as well as to embrace. Along side Stephen Dubner, Jews today walk the tightrope of the American- Jewish.

Challenges Faced in the search for the History of crime and punishment Essay

Challenges Faced in the search for the History of crime and punishment in England and Wales - Essay Example To understand this, they have to deal with a great deal of criminal records. These criminal records vary in the nature of punishment administered for various crimes during different times in history. Another problem experienced by these researcher is that there is a lot of information on paper records about the nature of crime and punishment in England and Wales more than information in the internet. They have to scrutinise large records of information about crime administered for various cases. These records may include prison registers, petitions for clemency, judges report and other report from criminal justice agents. Researchers have to understand various circumstances that led to change in the history of these societies. They have to pay attention to civilisation, industrialisation and the growth of population. Also, some cases that form precedents are unique in their own way. The decision by a judge is sometimes influenced by circumstances that were only relevant during that time. Therefore, these individuals have to understand this aspect as they were in history. For example, the criminal responsibility age in both Wales and England is 10 years. However, the 1993 case of Jamie Bulger entailed a child being taken to an adult court in Liverpool. Criminological theories help researchers to understand various change in the perception of crime and punishment by the criminal Justice system in both England and Wales. For example the social learning theory helps to understand the history of crime in both jurisdictions since criminal records have shown that individuals brought up in environments prone to crime have a higher tendency of committing crime. In both areas, criminal activities that have been reinforced frequently and punished infrequently have been found to occur again and again. For example, alcohol abuse among minors, school truancy and gambling are more often since they have been found to be infrequently punished(Hostettler p. 100). The proponents of radical criminology argue that criminal act are socially constructed and there is not act which is immoral or criminal without being defined by the society. This theory proposes that wealth should also be distributed equally in the society to eradicate crime. It may be used to help understand why crime in both England and Wales is by both the rich and the poor. The nature of punishment varies depending on the circumstances surrounding the crime. Foucault’ opinion and crime and punishment were passionate and placed a lot of emphasis on punishing people less and doing it better. Foucault’s opinions on crime and punishment assist learners to understand the evolution of crime and punishment and the evolution of prisons. His theoretical position has enabled people to understand the history of crime and punishment in England and Wales in the sense that prisons from the past in both England and Wales have not reduced crime in the society. To understand the history of crime and punishment, the element of repeat offending ( recidivism) that was coined by this scholar as a consequence of Imprisonment has to be taken into consideration. There may be minimal records to how this element of crimes that have occurred in both England and Wales. The survival of records about crimes of the past in both England and Wales is also a challenge for individuals intending to unearth history of crime in these two places. Record keeping of the criminal Justice agents was not as good as it is today since technology has made things easier and information more accessible to researchers . Also,

Oil Market Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Oil Market - Essay Example Deflation pressure, not inflation, is currently one of the greatest concern for the global economy. During the previous year, producer prices have reduced all over the developed world; consumer prices have been decreasing for the last 6 months in Germany and France; in Japan wages have actually dropped 4% for the past year. Up until the latest crisis prices were decreasing in Brazil; they continue to fall in China and Hong Kong; most probably they will soon be declining in various other developing countries (Case & Fair, 2005). Currently, none of these price reduction of oil seems anything like the great deflation that followed the Great Depression. But the presence of deflation as a common problem is worrying, not just because of its direct economic effects, but because until lately most economists considered sustained deflation as a profoundly incredible prospect, something that must not be a worry (IMF, 2011). Although changes in prices have been controversial, they are the unavoidable outcomes of shifts in demand and supply. The demand and supply of oil are comparatively inelastic in the short run: price changes have a small effect on either the quantity supplied or the quantity demanded. When there is an increase in oil prices, we spend some energy and time complaining but, in the short run, spend nearly no effort in adjusting our habits to consume less. Likewise in the short run, price changes do less to spur new supplies. As the quantities demanded and supplied change slightly as prices increase and decrease, both curves are comparatively vertical as shown in the figure below: Â  Since quantities are comparatively fixed in the short run, any shifts in demand or supply affect prices. For instance, supposing that supply decreases. The reduced supply makes a temporary shortage that will increase the price. If demand is elastic, only a slight increase in price will be required to

Death and Afterlife Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Death and Afterlife - Essay Example In the Epic of Gilgamesh called Enkidu's Dream written around 2000 BC, the bleak concept of death being an express outcome of sins committed in life, there is a very apt reference to kings' "crowns put away forever" and the ones who stood at any worldly position on Earth "stood now like servants". This depicts how the Mesopotamian had an acute belief that the afterlife was merely suffering and distress to say the least and the dead were both pitied and feared. Furthermore, the references to "vampire foot", "lion's foot" and "eagle's talon" all illustrate the fears that the people of this time had and how they associates all that they feared with the dismal possibility of death and what they figured would happen afterwards. Contrary to this dreary outlook to life after death of the Mesopotamian people, the Greeks were more optimistic about the afterlife. Although they believed that the people who did wrong on Earth will be punished severely by the gods in the afterlife, they also believed that the good doers will have an eternally peaceful life; modern researchers believe that the concept of heaven and hell originated from this era. The Myth of ER which is the concluding part of Plato's dialogue called The Republic, talks of a man called ER who dies in battle but remains un-decomposed even after ten days when his body was recovered. Waking up two days later on his unreal pyre, he tells his people about his passage to the afterlife (probably one of the first recounts of out of body experiences) in which he sees that moral people were rewarded and the immoral were castigated in their afterlives. Many believe that this was the point where the belief that the soul was mere energy and never dies came about and the intervention of a divine being brought about conviction in following religions. Punishment and rewards in the afterlife were considered a direct consequence of one's conduct in life. The Egyptians were another matter altogether. While both the Greeks and Mesopotamians agreed on the fact that there was a life after death which may either be absolutely bleak or have either a reward or a punishment awaiting them, the Egyptians treated their dead as if they were not dead after all. Elaborate preparations went into the ensuring that a person's ka (soul) and ba (personality) were united and the being would once more surface to travel to the heavens - intact and whole. The body was embalmed for preservation and provisions like writing paper, wigs, clothing and even tools were made available that the dead may need in the afterlife. The pyramid texts inscribed inside the pyramids of some pharaohs of the fifth and the sixth dynasties are primarily associated with the transition of the dead pharaoh to its heavenly abode. "He is not of the earth, he is of the sky. . . ." depicts this transition in terms of the passage a dead being takes after the incorporation of the ka and the ba. Journey to the next world is imminent and the work continued as if alive! While both the Mesopotamians and the Greek eloquently believed that death is the end and the after life depicts what we have done in actual life, the Egyptians believed in the re-usage of energy (soul) for the continuation of the same work being done at the time of death. Oddly enough,

The Safety of Medication Administration Assignment

The Safety of Medication Administration - Assignment Example he factors that contribute to medication error and immediately address these through an implementation of an electronic ordering system and by â€Å"incorporating bar-code verification technology within an electronic medication-administration system (bar-code eMAR)† (Poon, et al. 1698). could be deduced that from 2009 (Indiana State Department of Health: Report for 2009), the total number of hospitals in Indiana was 147 and was increased to 149 in 2011 (Indiana State Department of Health: Report for 2011). However, the total number of medication errors increased from 89 in 2009 to 94 to 2011, or 5.62%. The increase was noted to have come from care management, which exhibited an increase from 27 errors in 2009 to 44 errors in 2011. The errors under care management were explicitly identified under: Stage 3 or 4 Pressure Ulcers acquired after admission (Indiana State Department of Health). As proposed by Poon, et al., and Preidt, to avoid medication errors that ensue from timing, or inability to immediately address appropriate dispensation and administration of medications, an electronic ordering and administration system, through bar-code verification technology should be applied in contemporary health institutions, like ours. As emphasized by Poon, et al., the â€Å"use of the bar-code eMAR substantially reduced the rate of errors in order transcription and in medication administration as well as potential adverse drug events† (1706). Likewise, Preidt averred that â€Å"’Computerized provider order entry’ systems avoid the need to rely on handwritten instructions and provide built-in checks on drug doses and potentially harmful interactions with other medicines. These features help reduce the risk of medication mistakes† (par. 3). The insitution of these technological advancements would assist in improving care management and avoiding med ication errors associated to delays in dispensation and administration, as required. Solliday, Amanda. "Medical Error Reports

The economies of two neighbouring states Assignment

The economies of two neighbouring states - Assignment Example While the southern part of this island formed a separate republic called the Republic of Ireland, the Great Britain took hold of the Northern part and 18 provinces are under it. While Northern Ireland forms a part of the United Kingdom, the Southern part enjoys independent and separate governance. Both Ireland and Northern Ireland form an island and this is covered with green surroundings. Ireland is called the Emerald Island because of its greenery and so tourism is one of the major inputs for their economy. The economy of Ireland has transformed in the recent years from agrarian to technology based service industries. Moreover, the trade and investments in the country have made it one of the wealthiest countries in the European Union. Similarly, the economic growth of this country of the period from1995 to 2000 has brought them the name ‘Celtic Tigers’. On the other hand, the economy of Northern Ireland is the smallest in the subordinate states of U K. However, just like the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland also attracts many by its green surroundings and so tourism contributes heavily to the economy of the nation. Northern Ireland is a very deep rooted industrialized country and one can notice that industrialization flourished here even before it took its root at the Republic of Ireland. The nation had such industries like ship building, textiles and rope manufacturing. However, recently many heavy industries were replaced by services as in the case of The Republic of Ireland. But it is amazing that Northern Ireland has greater GDP than that of the neighbouring states like East England and Wales. Tourism plays a vital role in bringing up the economy of the Northern Ireland. Around 70% of economic output and covering 78% of employees fall in the service industry. It is also worthwhile to consider how the recent economic recession has adversely affected the economy of both the states. While there was a considerable

Business Proposal for Weichert Realtors to Enter the International Term Paper

Business Proposal for Weichert Realtors to Enter the International Market - Term Paper Example As a result, the company has developed a wide array of services, which focuses on providing a high level of convenience to the customers with the process of buying their dream shelters of the future. The company’s broad mix of product and service offerings comprises of the processes of buying, selling, arranging for open houses, mortgage processes. The company, by maintaining a dedicated team of housing experts focuses on the process of providing solutions to mortgage issues, as well as providing housing recommendation and advices to the customers (Weichert.com). Talking about the company’s area of operations, it can be said that the company is currently focused on providing operations to key markets in the United States. The company in all their business related affair handling focuses on the process of giving high importance to their customers. With the passing of time, the real estate company Weichert Realtors has focused on the process of providing high level of cus tomer satisfaction to the consumers. As of today, the company has become a major player in the housing segment and has developed a high level of expertise for representing the best homes in the community. The company through the process of conducting their highly popular home marketing programs has achieved a great deal of success in the process of being able to get identified by the customers in the fastest and quickest manner. Global Real Estate Market The real estate market around the world has been through a tremendous amount of growth phase in the early part of this decade. The growth phased continued till the subprime crisis in the United States in the year 2008 triggered a tremendous global slowdown which led to a significant amount of reduction in the growth rate of this sector all over the world. In an effort to tackle the global recession, banks all over the world increased their lending and interest rates, thereby making large amount commercial loans costlier than before. Also, the companies around the world focused on achieving significant cost reduction, thereby slowing or delaying their large scale investments as well as laying off extra staff from their payrolls for the purpose of attaining sustainable growth rate at that time. However, with the easing of pressures in relation to the global crisis, the real estate market around the world started to regain its luster. Talking in terms of market capitalization, the global real estate industry achieved a growth of over 2.5% and reached a capitalization value of around $544 billion in the year 2011. As of the data gathered in the recent times, Europe dominates the real estate market around the globe, with around 36%, followed closely by America at 35% market share. The real estate market comprises of around 20% of the entire global real estate market, while the rest of world comprises of the remaining 9% (â€Å"Prestige MLS Luxury Real Estate†, 13). Talking in a more specific manner, it can b e said that the there are a wide range of demand based factors that significantly influence the individual real estate demand in various parts of the world. In the cities like Paris and Moscow, the main factor that pushes the demand for the real estate market is the lifestyle and prestige related needs of the masses. In terms of cities of the Asia Pacific region like Singapore, Hong Kong and Mumbai, the demand is triggered in regards to investment needs of the mass

Memo and sales letter Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Memo and sales letter - Assignment Example I urge that you To employ humanity in dealing with the issue. I also would like to take you back to an issue that occurred 2 months ago where Jane Sanders, another employee, was forced out of her parking space by male employees under threats of physical abuse. The company appeared not to accord the occurrence the seriousness it deserves. Although the male employees have been reprimanded, I feel that was not at all due appeasement to the harassed employee. Furthermore, Mrs. Sanders did assert repeatedly that some of the male employees in the incident in question have made inappropriate passes at her in the past. This brings the focal point of that particular case not only to gender inequality but also sexual harassment. I would like to remind the company of the country’s constitutional provisions for gender sensitivity. The constitution provides that female members of the workforce be treated in a just and fair manner as the male members of the workforce. An oversight of this is therefore liable to legal complaint. It is only after this assertion is taken into account that the situation will be remedied. An assurance from the Human Resource department that the issues above will be handled with the utmost solemnity and reassurance of our safety in the workplace will go a long way to instill change. This would be the first, among many steps to remedy the crisis. Our company is extremely appreciative of the time that we have been able to serve you. We are honored that you have chosen us as your product provider. The last time you wrote to us you had a challenge with the gear that you purchased. I believe that the issue was well taken care of by our repair and maintenance team. Kindly get back to us and inform us whether you were fulfilled with the results. Our customer service team will review your recommendations depending on your response. We take great pride in being able to learn from our most valued and loyal

Economics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Economics - Research Paper Example When corn was used as an alternative enery source then it is apparent that soy beans will be demanded because it was used in a different manner other than food consumption. The supply of soy beans will decrease because farmers tend to use their farmlands for production of corn due primarily to two supply determinants. The first one is factor prices, since the cost for production is the same. Instead of soy beans they will prefer to farm corn in their lands. The other is expectations for the future because of anticipation that they will be able to easily sell their harvest due to the demand in corn as a raw material in a type of alternative energy. To note, corn was used as a component in alternative enrgy production with no substitute or complement indicated while soy beans was a substitute and not a complement which yields that it is affected in supply and demand parallel to corn. The determinants of demand which includes income, tastes, preferences, prices of substitutes or complements, expectations of the future and population (Carleton University, 2008). Given the scenario, the price of corn oil is likely to increase because the raw material for it which is corn was used in a different manner. Corn oil is a preferred ingredient by people in their daily kitchen use so this lets it fall under taste and preference. Concurrently, Total Revenue will increase based on the assessment that it is inelastic (Internet Center for Management and Business Administration, Inc., 2007). Increase in prices is greater than the increase in the quantity demanded which translate to an agmented total revenue for corn oil producers considering all

Pheochromocytoma Essay Example for Free

Pheochromocytoma Essay Above the kidneys are two yellowish- orange colored glands that are approximately two and half by one inch called the adrenal glands. The adrenal glands play a very important role in secreting hormones and protecting the body from stress. The adrenal glands are composed of two parts, the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla. The adrenal cortex is the outer part of the adrenal gland that produces steroid hormones that regulate many different body functions. Not only that, but a hormone called aldosterone is produced by the adrenal cortex. This hormone regulates the amount of water and salt that is in a person’s body. The adrenal gland also has another part called the adrenal medulla which also has a significant role. The adrenal medulla’s functions mainly deal with stress and frightening situations. It produces hormones known as catecholamines such as adrenaline and noradrenaline. Catecholamines deal with responding to acute or severe, sudden stress like in situations that are life threatening. Theses catecholamine hormones are responsible for the racing of the heart, known as palpations, sweating, the shakiness of the hands, and the widening of the eyes when a stressful situation occurs or when faced with sudden fear. When these glands begin to grow tumors called Pheochromocytoma. Phechromocytoma is a rare tumor that is found on the adrenal glands that causes hyper secretion of hormones that control the heart rate, blood pressure, and metabolism called epinephrine and norepinephrine that results in intermittent or sustained hypertension. Pheochromocytoma most often occurs in young to middle- aged adults that are between the ages of 30 and 60. Out of the people who are affected, ten percent of them are children that develop symptoms between the ages of 6 and 14. Many factors contribute to the cause of phechromocytoma. Environmental and genetic factors both play a role in most cases. Pheochromocytoma can occur either alone, or in combination with other disorders. Neurofibromatosis Von Hippel-Lindau disease, tuberous sclerosis, Sturge-Weber syndrome, multiple endocrine neoplasia syndrome, also known as MEN syndrome, and ataxia-telangiectasia are the most common disorders that pheochromocytoma are associated with. Since it can combined with other conditions, there are also quite a few symptoms that go alomg with it as well. If a person has pheochromocytoma, high blood pressure is the most common symptom, which can be to the extreme at times. Although every child is different and may experience symptoms differently, other symptoms may include rapid pulse, headache, racing heart, poor weight gain despite a good appetite, vomiting, dizziness, sweating, pale skin, growth failure, nausea, clammy skin, and abdominal pain. Because pheochromocytoma may resemble other medical conditions or problems, it is always best to consult the child’s physician for a proper diagnosis. Diagnostic procedures for pheochromocytoma, along with a complete physical examination and medical history, may include a urine and blood test so that hormone levels can be measured, a CAT scan may be taken of the adrenal gland, which is more detailed than a general x- ray and a radioisotope scan. Also, genetic testing may be done as well. Once pheochromocytoma is diagnosed, treatment can begin. Based on the overall health, age, medical history, tolerance for specific medications, the extent of the disease, and ther factors, will help the physician determine the specific treatment needed for pheochromocytoma. Usually, the treatment includes removing the tumor. However, before the tumor can even be removed, the physician may prescribe some mediations to control high blood pressure. When dealing with children and pheochromocytoma, there may be multiple tumors. In this case, before the surgery, an extensive evaluation is required to locate the tumors. After surgery, to monitor the development of future tumors, on- going medical follow- ups may be necessary. Since, in most cases, genetics play a role in pheochromocytoma, family members are well- advised to be tested to rule out the presence of any tumors.

The Scarlet Ibis by James Hurst Essay Example for Free

The Scarlet Ibis by James Hurst Essay Gaining from the ameliorate of ones disability, makes a person seem self-centered or conceited. The Scarlet Ibis, a short story by James Hurst tells the story of two brothers. Brother tells the story of his actions that contribute to his younger brothers death. Brothers pride is the main reason for Doodles yearly passing. This idea of pride, is a central theme in the story. Pride, a feeling of importance, merit, or superiority, can cause both positive and negative consequences. Moral integrity will destroy the career that took so long to build up. Brothers shame and embarrassment are forces that gave life to Doodle. Because Brother is ashamed of Doodles disability Brother tries to fix Doodle so that he can be pride of his brother. For example, when Brother learns that Doodle will not be able to walk, Brothers pride causes him to teach Doodle to walk. When Doodle said he could not walk, Brother replied, â€Å"Shut up. I’m not going to hurt you. I’m going to teach you to walk† (Hurst 346-347). Brother teaches Doodle to walk simply because he is embarrassed by his disabled brother. In fact Brother admits, â€Å"All of us must have something to be proud of† (347). Although Brothers reasons are selfish, Doodle is provided with a better life because of Brothers selfish actions. In addition, because Brother is so successful in teaching Doodle to walk, Brother feels even more pride in his accomplishments. Doodle explains, â€Å"I began to believe in my own infallibility† (349). Brother decided to teach Doodle to run, row, swim and climb trees. Certainly, if Doodle were capable of such things; running, rowing, swimming it would give Doodle a richer, fuller life. The same pride that gives Doodle life however, also steals his life. When the brothers go off to Horsehead Landing for a swimming lesson, a storm disrupts their plans. To escape the rain the brothers quickly head for home. Once Doodle slips and falls, Brother recongnizes that Doodle would always be different. Brother thinks, â€Å"He had failed and we both knew it. He would never be like the other boys at school† (352) The idea that Doodle is different continues to shame Brother. In fact, Brother is so ashamed that his actions cause suffering for Doodle. Brother abandons Doodle. Brother remembers, â€Å"The knowledge that Doodle’s and my plans had come to nothing was bitter, and that streak of cruelty within me awakened. I ran as fast as I could, leaving him far behind with a wall of rain dividing us† (353). At this point, Brothers pride is excessive and causes him to abandons his younger brother. When Brother finally went back he discovered his brother dead. â€Å"He had been bleeding from the mouth, and his neck and the front of his shirt were stained a brilliant red† (354). Brother pushes Doodle too far this time. His actions were helpful before where they were encouraging Doodle to have a better life, later they become so excessive Brothers pride pushes Doodle far beyond his capabilities. Brother pushes Doodle to the point that was not in his best interest. His pride causes destruction of his brothers life. A society cannot long exist without this sense of trust in each other, without some standards of truth. Lance Armstrong, a well-know cyclist and Tour de France seven time winner, was using illegal Performance Enhancing Drugs all while claiming honesty and integrity. Millions of fans putting their trust into him, having Armstrong play them like fools. Many children looked up to such an admirable athlete, showing them cheating to win is okay; then repeatedly lying about the actions Armstrong created. Moral integrity is beliefs regarding appropriate behavior in the right conduct. Lance Armstrong moral integrity is ruined. Armstrong thought it was morally acceptable to take Performance Enhancing Drugs while competing in the most prestigious cycling race. Lance Armstrong’s moral integrity ruined his career and also how people see him. Pride can be both a positive and negative force. Brother recognized this duality when he said, â€Å"Pride is a wonderful terrible thing, a seed that bears two vines, life and death† (347). Throughout the short story Brother stresses the duality, or the two sides of pride. It could of pushed Brother to do achieve greatness, but it became destructive when his obsession with helping Doodle pushed him to his early death. To have the public eye always watching Armstrong’s life, he should have know his behavior created a horrible moral integrity as a wellrespected celebrity.

What Causes Wars?

What Causes Wars? When one looks back in history war seems to have always been there as a means of conquering territory, desired resources or simply of demonstrating dominance over another nation. Most people would answer the question â€Å"what causes wars?† the same way. Greed, hate, religion. However, in order to understand the causes of wars one has to observe many other factors that play into the development of international conflict. Nations may regard each other with dislike over religious conflict or different values but this is hardly going to cause them to go to war. In International Relations, a disturbance in the balance of power (Brown, 2005: 99) is often named as the main cause of war. This disruption could be seen as the trigger of international conflict. For the cause of this paper, war shall stand for international war rather than civil war or inner state conflict. In this essay, the causes of wars shall be discussed on different levels. On an individual level, on the level of society but most importantly on an international level. For this purpose, it shall be elaborated on the importance of the balance of power in this context as well as on other theories that seem to be relevant. To observe the causes of war at an individual level requires observing human nature. According to Brown (2005: 104), â€Å"wars occur because of some aspect of human nature†. Man in his nature seems to be violent and bound to inflict harm on his own race. Greed appears to be an essential characteristic of human nature and therefore seems to determine the actions that are taken in order to gain more power than the rival. This all seems to be rather primitive and may sound like caveman behavior. However, in its essential form this behavior is still and will always be part of human nature. The critique that arises when discussing the nature of human beings as a cause of war is the following: can the nature of the individual really reflect accurately on the nature of the group, in this case society? Waltz (as cited in Brown, 2005: 104) called this way of thinking â€Å"reductionist†. One cannot explain â€Å"social phenomena by reference to the nature of individuals† (Brown, 2005: 104). Another aspect to be looked at in this context is that of determ inism. The concept of determinism is The theory that all events, including moral choices, are completely determined by previously existing causes that prelude free will and the possibility that humans could have acted otherwise This theory implies that war is out of man’s control and therefore he cannot be held responsible for it. Determinism implies that every action is predetermined by the causes of nature. Man is simply a play ball controlled by the forces of nature. However, who if not humankind can be held responsible for the occurrence of war? It appears that determinism in connection with war does not seem to be a very appropriate theory. Another aspect that should be looked when considering the causes of wars is that of the nature of societies, economies, and governments. According to Cashman (1993: 124), certain states possess characteristics that make them more likely to go to war than others. Naturally, here too we can find several theories. From a liberal point of view, war is caused by autocratic states, where â€Å"one person possesses unlimited power†( Merriam- Webster’s Online Dictionary). According to autocratic views, wars are caused by democracies. Leninists blame capitalist societies while capitalists see communist societies as the root cause of war. It is a popular belief that democracies do not tend to go to war with other democracies but regularly fight other non-democratic societies (Brown 2003: 104). Liberal theory states that humankind as such is a peace-loving race. Therefore, the behavior of states should follow this characteristic. Democracies, being elected by the citizens of the s tate, act for their nonviolent civilians and for that reason are likely to prevent violent conflicts with other states. This however, does not protect them from being attacked by other non-democratic states. According to this theory, all democratic states are good while all autocratic states are evil and therefore jeopardize world peace. The logical conclusion to this dilemma would be that in order for world peace to prevail, all nations have to be democratic. The solution is provided by isolationists and interventionists in two different ways. While isolationists believe that a reformation of autocratic states into democratic states should be achieved by being a good example to follow, interventionists feel that democratic states have to be actively involved in the process by attacking them if necessary instead of standing by and waiting for the other force to strike. The underlying idea for interventionists would therefore be that war is necessary to create peace (Cashman 1993: 12 6). From an outsiders point of view this theory may seem rather hypocritical. It will however become clearer when one considers the theory of the balance of power, which shall be taken up later on in this essay. So why is it that democracies should be less prone to go to war? Their governments need to â€Å"maintain public support† (Cashman 1993:127). They depend on the voting choices of their citizens and out of fear not to be re-elected, will try to pursue policies, which will satisfy the public. Still, if one actively engages in the study of history and world politics one might find that many democracies actively participate in wars and for this reason, the state system seems to have little effect on the likeliness of the war involvement of a state. Russet and Monsen (as cited in Cashman 1993: 127) claim that size matters. The bigger a state is the more likely it is for this state to conduct war. In R. J. Rummel’s opinion, war involvement depends on the degree of freedom of a state. This is to say that the freer a state is the less likely it is for this state to engage in war, while less libertarian states tend to be more violent (Rummel as quoted in Cashman 1993: 128). However, if one considers the example of the United States, â€Å"The Land of the Free†, Rummel’s theory proofs to be inconsistent. The USA have actively engaged in several wars over the past decades, be it the most recent Iraq war or the war in Vietnam. It remains uncertain whether the amount of freedom a state possesses is correlated to its violent actions or whether it creates more pressure to preserve said liberty. It seems relatively certain that states that have little or nothing in common in their political and cultural attitude are very likely to face each other with aggression. It seems to be, as Cashman (1993: 129) states, â€Å"political distance† that plays an important role. John Hobson, a British economist, held the opinion that it is the economic system of a state that causes wars. The most war prone states seem to be the ones with a capitalist economic system. This is explained by the fact that due to â€Å"overproduction, unequal distribution of economic wealth and under consumption† (Cashman 1993: 130) on the side of the public, the economy is forced to expand to other countries, to invest in foreign markets. However, in a predominantly capitalist world where all foreign markets are already taken, the only way to expand one’s economy beyond one’s own borders is at the cost of other states. In order to expand, a state, democratic or not, would have to go to war. It seems also logical that war is most likely to occur at times of financial distress. Although economic crises did not immediately lead to World War II, unemployment and poverty were certainly a reason for German citizens to feel more inclined towards the notion of trust ing in an ideology that promised to improve their living standard. It is a common belief that war creates jobs, be it due to arms races and the production of other products or the improvement of infrastructure. According to Cashman (1993: 134), war may also be seen as a means of distracting the citizens of a state from internal problems. Whatever causes governments to make this fateful decision, we can be assured that it involves a careful decision-making process at all times and only if the chances of success are high will there be war. As Howard states, wars are never accidental. They always have a political purpose (Howard 1983: 12). War used to be universally accepted as a means to protect or assist allies under attack. In earlier years, it was also used to invade territory when a nation was in need for more space due to overpopulation. This concept played an important role for Germany in World War II. Hitler argued that the German people were in need of more space in order to spread the Arian race. One could argue that Darwin’s survival the fittest theory could be applied here. In order to spread out, one nation, in the case of World War II Germany, has to attack another. The strongest state will survive and impose its power upon others. Another level to be examined is that of the international sphere. Here it shall be observed in which way states as international actors interrelate. The international system is composed of â€Å"sovereign states, organizations of states, international cooperations, and even individuals† (Cashman 1993: 224). It is in a state of anarchy in the sense that an international government does not exist. This and the lack of an authoritarian force that could keep order in the international system are addressed as a problem in International Relations. Certain actions on the side of states will disrupt the equilibrium of the so-called balance of power. According to Brown, such a disruption could occur in the form of one state becoming more powerful than it used to be (Brown 2005: 99) for instance through the increase of its military power. Other states will feel threatened by this and take action to restore the balance. Due to the relative instability of the balance and international ana rchy, states are in constant fear of being attacked and are therefore prepared to defend themselves at all times. This paranoia causes constant suspicion towards every member in the international system. To reduce this fear, they are constantly looking for a possibility to gain power while reducing that of their opponents. As Brown implies, a state’s own security is of the utmost importance. Realist theory in International Relations states that the order of the international system is kept by two institutions: the balance of power and war. War is here seen as a â€Å"conflict resolving mechanism† that is an essential part of the balance of power (Brown 2005: 10). The balance of power can be seen as a system of states as a whole, which is based on sovereignty. Stability can only exist if the opposing forces are in equilibrium. The balance of power can be disturbed if one Power becomes stronger through economic or demographic growth, the increase in military power or through alliance with another state (Brown 2005: 99). If this happens, other states may feel threatened and may feel compelled to defend themselves. In order to keep one nation from gaining more and more power, action has to be taken. States also have the military power at their disposal, which might make them more inclined towards using force against an opposing power. In the international system, war is seen as a means of evening out disruptions in the balance of power. In general, a balance is not desirable for states (Brown 2005: 101) and if there were a guarantee for being successful in international conflict, war would be a very normal occurrence. Nevertheless, states cannot be sure of their success. The price that one might have to pay for such a decision could be far too high. The second best option is therefore to maintain a balance of power and with it peace. To fix one’s opinion on one specific cause of war is impossible. There seem to be many reasons that play together when nations decide to conduct war. Be it human nature, the nature of societies, or even the nature of the international system as an unstable and unpredictable institution. Greed, the hunger for power and fear seem to stretch through all three levels and determine the events in the international system. Political distance and economic problems inside a country can be named as causes as well. War has been, is, and will probably always be a means of gaining power or resources or simply of defending the sovereignty and safety of a nation.

All Quiet on the Western Front Essay: Effective Criticism of War :: All Quiet on the Western Front Essays

All Quiet on the Western Front:   Effective Criticism of War  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     All Quiet on the Western Front was a sad tale of Paul Bà ¤umer, a lad just entering adulthood, who fought in a war that he did not even believe in. Erich Maria Remarque wrote this novel to show the war through the eyes of Paul, who saw everything that happened; every death, every horror, and all the bloodshed. Remarque denounced war by showing how it destroys human lives and, more   importantly, how it devours the human soul. World War I was pointless to the young soldiers who did not even seem to know why a war was being waged. Paul showed how war affected an entire generation, of people, which he represented through Paul. Altogether, All Quiet on   the Western Front was a powerful and moving criticism of the war.    Every character in the novel was a tragic character and a sad loss in the war. This includes Paul, whose eyes Remarque used to show the atrocities of war to the world. All the events were shown without heroism, or at least without what was officially determined to be heroic by the people. Paul watched people die and killed people, something that tore him apart emotionally, but for which he would be considered a hero for. "We reach the zone where the front begins and become on the instant human animals" (56). The humanity was taken away from these soldiers, a horrible and mournful thing, and completely unwarranted. These were students like Paul, farmers like Detering, and other ordinary men who were enlisted and taken to the front, not really knowing what they were fighting for, stripped of even their humanity. At one point Paul even said "[i]n many ways we are treated quite like men" (91). However, they were men, even though they were made to feel like animals. They were still men. Remarque effectively used Paul's experiences to illustrate his criticism of World War I, showing the destruction to humanity and human emotion. There was already the mention of the soldiers becoming animals when at the front. He described this further: "The blast of the hand-grenades impinges powerfully on our arms and legs; crouching like cats we run on, overwhelmed by this wave that bears us along, that fills us with ferocity, turns us into thugs,

The Minimum Wage Essay -- Minimum Wage Research Paper

"The minimum wage is something that F.D.R. put in place a long time ago during the Great Depression. I don't think it worked then. It didn't solve any problems then and it hasn't solved any problems in 50 years." -- John Raese For many years it has been a matter of conventional wisdom among economists that the minimum wage causes fewer jobs to exist than would be the case without it. This is simply a matter of price theory, taught in every economics textbook, requiring no elaborate analysis to justify. Were this not the case, there would be no logical reason why the minimum wage could not be set at $10, $100, or $1 million per hour. Historically, defenders of the minimum wage have not disputed the dis-employment effects of the minimum wage, but argued that on balance the working poor were better off. In other words, the higher incomes of those with jobs offset the lower incomes of those without jobs, as a result of the minimum wage l "levitan". Now, President Obama is advancing the novel economic theory that modest increases in the minimum wage will have no impact whatsoever on employment. This proposition is based entirely on the work of three economists: David Card and Alan Krueger of Princeton, and Lawrence Katz of Harvard. Their studies of increases in the minimum wage in California, Texas and New Jersey apparently found no loss of jobs among fast food restaurants that were surveyed before and after the increase [ l "card-92b", l "krueger", and l "katz". While it is not yet clear why Card, Katz and Krueger got the results that they did, it is clear that their findings are directly contrary to virtually every empirical study ever done on the minimum wage. These studies were exhaustively surveyed by the Minimum Wage Study Commission, which concluded that a 10% increase in the minimum wage reduced teenage employment by 1% to 3%. The following survey of the academic research on the minimum wage is designed to give nonspecialists a sense of just how isolated the Card, Krueger and Katz studies are. It will also indicate that the minimum wage has wide-ranging negative effects that go beyond unemployment. For example, higher minimum wages encourage employers to cut back on training, thus depriving low wage workers of an important means of long-term advancement, in return for a small increase in current income. For many workers this is a very ... ...g (1996), " `Who Gets What' from Minimum Wage Hikes," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 49 (April): 547-52.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ------, and T. A. Finegan (1989), "The Minimum Wage and the Poor: The End of a Relationship," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 8 (Winter): 53-71. 23w  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Card, D., and A. Krueger (1995), Myth and Measurement (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press).  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Deere, D., K. M. Murphy and F. Welch (1995), "Employment and the 1990-1991 Minimum Wage Hike," American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings 85 (May): 232-37.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gramlich, E. (1976), "Impact of Minimum Wages on Other Wages, Employment, and Family Incomes," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 2: 409-51.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lang, K. (1994), "The Effect of Minimum Wage Laws on the Distribution of Employment: Theory and Evidence," Working Paper, Boston University.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Neumark, D., and W. Wascher (1995), "The Effects of Minimum Wages on Teenage Employment and Enrollment: Evidence from Matched CPS Surveys," NBER Working Paper No. 5092, April.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Smith, R., and B. Vavrichek (1992), "The Wage Mobility of Minimum Wage Workers," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 46 (October): 82-88.

Robert Frost :: essays research papers

Robert Frost Robert Frost (1874-1963) was one of the finest of rural New England's 20th century pastoral poets. Frost published his first books in Great Britain in the 1910s, but he soon became in his own country the most read and constantly anthologized poet. Frost was awarded the Pulitzer Prize four times. Robert Frost was born in San Francisco, California on March 26, 1874. His father, a journalist and local politician, died when Frost was eleven years old. His Scottish mother resumed her career as a schoolteacher to support her family. The family lived in Lawrence, Massachusetts, with Frost's paternal grandfather. In 1892 Frost graduated from a high school and attended Dartmouth College for a few months. Over the next ten years he held a number of jobs. In 1894 the New York Independent published Frost's poem "My Butterfly" and he had five poems privately printed. In 1895 he married a former schoolmate, Elinor White; they had six children. Frost worked as a teacher and continued to write and publish his poems in magazines. From 1897 to 1899 Frost studied at Harvard, but left without receiving a degree. He moved to Derry, New Hampshire, working there as a cobbler, farmer, and teacher at Pinkerton Academy and at the state normal school in Plymouth. In 1912 Frost sold his farm and took his wife and four young children to England. There he published his first collection of poems, â€Å"A Boy’s Will† (1913) followed by â€Å"North Boston† (1914), which gained international reputation. The collection contains some of Frost's best-known poems: "Mending Wall," "The Death of the Hired Man," "Home Burial," "After Apple-Picking," and "The Wood-Pile." After returning to the US in 1915 with his family, Frost bought a farm near Franconia, New Hampshire. He taught later at Amherst College (1916-38) and Michigan universities. In 1916 Frost was made a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. In the same year appeared his third collection of verse, â€Å"Mountain Interval†, which contained such poems as "The Road Not Taken," "Birches," and "The Hill Wife." Frost's images - woods, stars, houses, brooks, - are usually taken from everyday life. With his down-to-earth approach to his subjects, readers found it easy to follow the poet into deeper truths, without being burdened with pedantry. In 1920 Frost purchased a farm in South Shaftsbury, Vermont, near Middlebury College. His wife died in 1938 and he lost four of his children.

Motorcycle Helmet Laws in America Essay

Motorcycle are not the safest means of transportation but millions of people all across America choose them over automobile for the trill, speed and high performance capabilities they offer in fraction of the price of a automobile. Motorcycle do not provide the protection like automobiles do with their outer body and safety features like air bags and seat belts, therefore in case of an accident the injury sustained by the rider is often very serious. When dealing with motorcycle accidents, majority of the fatalities are due to head injuries which could have been prevented had the rider been wearing a helmet. Helmets are the only method to reduce the head injuries during crashes which is the leading cause of death involving motorcycle accidents. Helmet use law has created a lot of controversies over the years, while some supporting the law and other opposing it. One side who support the law believe that the helmet law protects the motorcyclist from danger in case of an accident and save the nation a good deal of money. While, the other side believes that the law is unconstitutional and it violets their right to freedom. Although helmet cannot prevent motorcycle accidents but greatly reduces the number of deaths caused by head injuries during these crashes as well as helps in lowering taxes, insurance cost and health care cost. According to the federal government estimates, the number of deaths on motorcycle per mile in 2006 was 35 times higher than in automobile. In last couple of years motorcycle deaths have seen considerable increase- more than doubling in 2007 from the record low in 1997. In contrast the passenger occupant death reached a record low in 2007. This paper examines the history of motorcycle helmet use law and also the current state of the law. It also tries to highlight the burden that accident involving riders not wearing helmet impose on the society and also the effect of helmet law on helmet use. BACKGROUND HISTORY OF MOTORCYCLE HELMET LAW: The motorcycle helmets laws in United States has gone through several changes throughout the years. In 1967, in order to increase the helmet use, the federal government required the state government to enact helmet use laws to qualify for certain federal safety program and highway construction fund. The federal incentives was a success and by early 1970s almost all the states had universal helmet laws which covered all the riders of all ages and experience. 1968, Michigan became the first state to repel its laws. This lead to a series of repeal, re-enactment, and amendment of motorcycle helmet laws. In 1976, US Department of transportation (DOT) moved in to assess the financial penalties on states without helmet laws but the congress corresponded to state pressure and stopped DOT from assessing financial penalties on states without helmet laws. By 1980, several states had repealed their helmet laws and some weakened their laws to cover riders under the age of 18 but not older riders. In the 1980s and early 1990, several states reinstated helmet laws applying for all riders. In the 1991 Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act, several incentives were created by the congress for the states to enact helmet use and safety belt use laws. The eligibility criteria for receiving special safety grants was that the state must enact both the laws. Up to 3 percent of federal highway allotment was redirected to highway safety program for all the states that did not enact the laws by October 1993. But again after four years of establishing the incentive program ,congress revised itself. In the fall of 1995, federal sanction against the states without helmet use laws was lifted which paved the way for state to repeal helmet use laws. This lead to many states weakening its helmet use laws. Now 20 states and District of Columbia have helmet laws covering all riders and 27 states have partial helmet use law covering some riders (usually riders under the age of 18). Illinois and Iowa do not have any helmet use laws. PRESENT HELMET LAW STATUS: [pic] NO HELMET LAW: |NO HELMET LAW (2 STATES) | |ILLINOIS |IOWA | PARTIALLY FREE: |AGE REQUIREMENT – PARTIALLY FREE (27 STATES) | |15 & UNDER |18 & UNDER |19 & UNDER |21 & UNDER | | | | | | |MAINE |ALASKA |DELAWARE |ARKANSAS | | |ARIZONA | |KENTUCKY | | |COLORADO | |RHODE ISLAND | | |CONNECTICUT | |SO. CAROLINA | | |HAWAII | |TEXAS | | |IDAHO | |PENNSYLVANIA | | |INDIANA | | | | |KANSAS | | | | |MINNESOTA | | | | |NEW HAMPSHIRE | | | | |NEW MAXICO | | | | |NORTH DAKOTA | | | | |OHIO | | | | |OKLAHOMA | | | | |SOUTH DAKOTA | | | | |UTAH | | | AGE REQUIREMENT & INSURANCE: |AGE REGUIREMENT + INSURANCE (1 STATE PARTIALLY FREE) | |21 & OVER | |FLORIDA | MANDATORY LAW: | | |MANDATORY HELMET LAWS (20 STATES) | |ALABAMA |MASSACHUSETTS |TENNESSE |NEBRASKA | |CALIFORNIA |MICHIGAN |VERMONT |NEW YORK | |GEORGIA |MISSISSIPPI |VIRGINIA |NEW JERSEY | |LOUISIANA. |MISSOURI |WASHINGTON |NORTH CAROLINA | |MARYLAND |NEBRASKA |W. VIRGINIA |OREGON | | | | | | | | | | | HOW DO HELMET LAWS AFFECT HELMET USE: Based on various studies of states enactment, repel and weakening of helmet laws, it was observed that the helmet use reached 100 percent when all the riders were required to wear helmet at all times compared to 50 percent when there was no law or law applied to only some riders. In 2008, according to NHTSA, 97 percent of the riders were observed wearing helmets in states with universal helmet laws compared to 90 percent in 2002. In states without universal helmet law the use of helmet was 52 percent in 2002 and 54 percent in 2008. Based on helmets judged to be compliant with federal safety regulations, use was 73 percent in 2002 and went up to 78 percent in 2008 among motorcyclists in states with universal helmet laws. It rose from 46 to 50 percent among motorcyclists in states without such laws. HOW DO HELMET LAW EFFECT MOTORCYCLIST DEATH AND INJURIES: In states which either reinstates or enacted saw a considerable increase in motorcycle helmet use and motorcycle death and injuries decreased drastically. Whereas the states which repealed or weakened their existing helmet law saw a great increase in motorcycle death and injuries and considerable decrease in helmet use. According to two studies published in 2007 and 2008, motorcyclist fatality rates were modelled based on helmet law type, after controlling for various factors such as per capita income, population density, and annual precipitation. It was observed that the states which had helmet law covering all riders had lowest death rates. Further on, the states which had helmet law covering only some riders had low death rate compared to states with no helmet law, but not as low as the states with universal helmet law. These results held for all three types of rates considered: deaths per 10,000 registered motorcycles, deaths per 100,000 population, and deaths per 10 billion vehicle miles traveled. Some examples of helmet law and its effect on death and injuries:   California enacted universal helmet law on January 1, 1992. The number of motorcycle fatalities decreased 37 percent to 327 in 1992 from 523 in 1991.   Nebraska reinstated a helmet law on January 1, 1989 after repealing an earlier law in 1977. The state saw 22 percent reduction in serious head injuries due to motorcycle crashes.   From 1968 to 1977, Texas had a universal helmet use law estimated to have saved 650 lives, but the law was amended in 1977 to apply only to riders younger than 18. The weakened law coincided with a 35 percent increase in motorcyclist fatalities. Texas reinstated its helmet law for all motorcyclists in September 1989. The month before the law took effect, the helmet use rate was 41 percent. The rate jumped to 90 percent during the first month of the law and had risen to 98 percent by June 1990. Serious injury crashes per registered motorcycle decreased 11 percent. But in September 1997, Texas again weakened its helmet law, requiring helmets only for riders younger than 21. Helmet use in Texas dropped to 66 percent by May 1998, and operator fatalities increased 31 percent in the first full year following the repeal.   Kentucky repealed its universal helmet law in 1998, followed by Louisiana in 1999. These actions resulted in lower helmet use, and quickly increased motorcyclist deaths in these states by 50 percent and 100 percent, respectively. In 2000, Florida’s universal helmet law was weakened to exempt riders 21 and older who have at least $10,000 of medical insurance coverage. An Institute study found that the motorcyclist death rate in Florida increased by about 25 percent after the state weakened its helmet law. A study of the Florida law change by NHTSA found a similar effect; motorcyclist deaths per 10,000 motorcycle registrations increased 21 percent during the two years after the law was changed compared with the two years before. IMPACT OF HELMET LAW ON MOTORCYCLE THEFT: Helmet law has also resulted in decline in reduction in motorcycle theft as potential robbers may not have an access to helmet and not wearing helmet will attract police notice. According to Texas department of public safety, motorcycle theft decreased 44 percent between 1988 and 1998 in 19 cities after enactment of universal helmet law. After enactment of helmet law by Great Britain, motorcycle theft feel 24 percent in London. The Netherlands saw 36 percent drop in motorcycle theft after it enacted helmet laws in 1975. In 1980, when on the spot fine was introduced in former West Germany, motorcycle theft plummeted 60 percent. IMPACT OF HELMET ON HEALTH CARE COST: Unhelmeted riders have higher health care costs as a result of their crash injuries, and many lack health insurance. In November 2002, NHTSA reported that 25 studies of the costs of injuries from motorcycle crashes â€Å"consistently found that helmet use reduced the fatality rate, probability and severity of head injuries, cost of medical treatment, length of hospital stay, necessity for special medical treatments, and probability of long-term disability. A number of studies examined the question of who pays for medical costs. Only slightly more than half of motorcycle crash victims have private health insurance coverage. For patients without private insurance, a majority of medical costs are paid by the government. † According to specific findings of several studies: 1996 NHTSA study found that inpatient hospital charges were 8 percent higher for riders without helmets compared to riders wearing helmets.   Various studies shows that the health care cost associated with head injured motorcyclist decline after the introduction of helmet use law in 1994 by the state of California. The rate of motorcyclist hospitalized for head injuries decreased by 48 percent in 1993 compared with 1991 and the total cost of patients with head injuries decreased by $20. 5 million during this period. †¢ After reinstatement of helmet law by Nebraska, study showed that there has been 38 percent decline in total acute medical charges for injured motorcyclist. A NHTSA evaluation of the weakening of Florida’s universal helmet law in 2000 to exclude riders 21 and older who have at least $10,000 of medical insurance coverage found a huge increase in hospital admissions of cyclists with injuries to the head, brain, and skull. Such injuries went up 82 percent during the 30 months immediately following the law change. The average inflation-adjusted cost of treating these injuries went up from about $34,500 before the helmet law was weakened to nearly $40,000 after. Less than one-quarter of the injured motorcyclists would have been covered by the $10,000 medical insurance requirement for riders who chose not to use helmets. Various studies conducted in Nebraska, California, Washington and Massachusetts indicates that taxpayers are burdened by injured motorcyclist. From January 1988 to January 1990, 41 percent motorcyclist injured in Nebraska lacked health insurance or received Medicaid or Medicare. In Seattle, public fund paid 63 percent of trauma care for injured motorcyclist in 1985. In Sacramento, 82 percent of the costs to treat orthopaedic injuries sustained by motorcyclists during 1980-83 was paid by public fund. Forty-six percent of motorcyclists treated at Massachusetts General Hospital during 1982-83 were uninsured. MOTORCYCLE HELMET LAW ISSUES: Motorcyclist often feel that helmet use law violets their right of freedom. They believe that the rider should have the freedom to decide the use of helmet. According to various motorcycle groups, helmet use law reduces riding which in turn results in less death rates in motorcycle crashes which the government uses to confuse people about the safety benefits of helmet. Many motorcyclist have gone to the court objecting the law. In 1972, a federal court told a motorcyclist who objected to the law: â€Å"The public has an interest in minimizing the resources directly involved. From the moment of injury, society picks the person up off the highway; delivers him to a municipal hospital and municipal doctors; provides him with unemployment compensation if, after recovery, he cannot replace his lost job; and, if the injury causes permanent disability, may assume responsibility for his and his family’s subsistence. We do not understand a state of mind that permits plaintiff to think that only he himself is concerned. † This decision was affirmed by the US Supreme Court. RECCOMENDATIONS TO INCREASE HELMET USE: Law makers should look into other means to increase use of motorcycle helmets other then law. Public campaign to encourage helmet use would greatly reduce the law enforcement cost also restriction to one’s own freedom felt by some riders. But the chances of achieving results through these method is minimal. Subsidies on helmet purchase can shift part of the cost from riders to general public by providing federal money to the motorcyclist purchasing helmets. Subsidies would not motivate riders who value their freedom and convenience over the benefits helmet use. Motorcyclist using helmet should be charged lower insurance premium compared to riders not using helmet to encourage helmet use. This difference in insurance premium would encourage un-helmeted rider to use helmet and other safety gear in order to reduce their premium. When novice riders take rider education course, more emphasis should be laid on the importance of helmet use and not just only the basic operating skills. If they understand the use of safety gear and helmet at early age, it might affect their choice later in their life. Motorcyclist who fail to wear a helmet and sustain head injuries could be denied compensation for injury and damages. however, it would become difficult for the court to determine on case to case basis in which compensation would be denied as head injuries are sustained when helmet are worn. Various studies have showed that when helmet use is not mandatory, 50% of all riders wear helmet but when it is mandatory nearly 100% riders use helmet. So, the only way to increase helmet is to enact universal helmet law in all the states of United States of America. REFERENCES: www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov www. iihs. org www. nhtsa. dot. org.